Common Errors in English by Paul Brians

Common Errors in English by Paul Brians

http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~brians/errors/

(Brownie points to anyone who catches inconsistencies between the main site and this version.)

What is an error in English?

The concept of language errors is a fuzzy one. I'll leave to linguists the technical definitions, but what we're concerned with here are deviations from standard usage of English as judged by sophisticated users such as professional writers, editors, teachers, and literate executives and personnel officers. The aim of this site is to help you avoid low grades, lost employment opportunities, lost business, and titters of amusement at the way you write or speak.

But isn't one person's mistake another's standard usage?

Often enough, but if your standard usage causes other people to consider you stupid or ignorant, you may want to consider changing it. You have the right to express yourself in any manner you please, but if you wish to communicate effectively you should use nonstandard English only when you intend to rather than falling into it because you don't know any better.

I'm an immigrant. Will this site help me improve my English?

Maybe, but it's really aimed at the most common errors of native speakers. The errors others make in English differ according to the characteristics of their first languages. Chinese speakers and Swahili speakers need different guidelines.

Aren't some of these points awfully picky?

This is a relative matter. One person's gaffe is another's peccadillo. Some common complaints about usage strike me as too persnickety, but I'm just covering mistakes in English that happen to bother me. Feel free to create your own page listing your own pet peeves; but I welcome suggestions for additions to these pages.

What gives you the right to say what's an error in English?

I could take the easy way out and say I'm a professor of English and do this sort of thing for a living. True, but my Ph.D. is in comparative literature, not composition or linguistics, and I teach courses in the history of ideas rather than language as such. But I admire good writing and try to encourage it in my students.

But you made a mistake yourself!

We all do, from time to time. Drop me a line if you think you've found an error in my own writing. If I think you're right, I'll correct it; but be prepared to be disagreed with. If you write me, please don't call me "Brian." My given name is Paul.

brians@wsu.edu

Paul Brians Professor of English Washington State University Pullman, WA 99164-5020

This resource is copyrighted by Paul Brians. Permission is granted to reproduce it in its entirety or in part for all nonprofit, educational purposes provided that the author is cited and the URL of this page is included. As a courtesy, please notify the author if you copy or link to this material.

Recommended in Yahoo Internet Life Magazine, July, 1997, pp. 82-83.

Errors

ABSORBTION/ABSORPTION

The word "absorb" was originally derived from Latin "absorptus" and used to be commonly spelled with a P. In such forms as "absorped" and "absorping" the P shifted to a B; but in the more scholarly word "absorption" the P remained. Since it is not clearly sounded, the average listener has no cue which vowel is intended.

ACCEPT/EXCEPT

If you offer me Godiva chocolates I will gladly accept them–except for the candied violet ones. Just remember that the "X" in "except" excludes things–they tend to stand out, be different. In contrast, just look at those two cozy "Cs" snuggling up together. Very accepting. And be careful; when typing "except" it often comes out "expect."

ACCIDENTLY/ACCIDENTALLY

You can remember this one by remembering how to spell "accidental." There are quite a few words like this with -ally suffixes (like incidentally) which have to be kept separate from words with -ly suffixes like independently. "Incidental" is a word, but "independental" is not.

ADAPT/ADOPT

You can adopt a child or a custom or a law; in all of these cases you are making the object of the adoption your own, accepting it. If you adapt something, however you are changing it.

ADVERSE/AVERSE

The word "adverse" turns up most frequently in the phrase "adverse circumstances," meaning difficult circumstances, circumstances which act as an adversary; but people often confuse this word with "averse," a much rarer word, meaning having a strong feeling against, or aversion toward.

ADVICE/ADVISE

"Advice" is the noun, "advise" the verb. When Ann Landers advises people, she gives them advice.

AFFECT/EFFECT

There are four distinct words here. When "affect" is accented on the final syllable (a-FECT), it is a verb meaning "have an influence on": "The million-dollar donation from the industrialist did not affect my vote against the Clean Air Act." A much rarer meaning is indicated when the word is accented on the first syllable (AFF-ect), meaning "emotion." In this case the word is used mostly by psychiatrists and social scientists– people who normally know how to spell it. The real problem arises when people confuse the first spelling with the second: "effect." This too can be two different words. The more common one is a noun: "When I left the stove on, the effect was that the house was filled with smoke." When you affect a situation, you have an effect on it. The less common is a verb meaning "to create": "I'm trying to effect a change in the way we purchase widgets." No wonder people are confused. Hey, nobody ever said English was logical: just memorize it and get on with your life.

AIN'T

"Ain't" has a long and vital history as a substitute for "isn't," "aren't" and so on. It was originally formed from a contraction of "am not" and is still commonly used in that sense. Even though it has been universally condemned as the classic "mistake" in English, everyone uses it occasionally as part of a joking phrase or to convey a down-to-earth quality. But if you always use it instead of the more "proper" contractions you're sure to be branded as uneducated.

ALLUDE/REFER

To allude to something is to refer to it indirectly, by suggestion. If you are being direct and unambiguous, you refer to the subject rather than alluding to it.

ALLUSION/ILLUSION

An allusion is a reference, something you allude to: "Her allusion to flowers reminded me that Valentine's Day was coming." A mirage, hallucination, or a magic trick is an illusion. (Doesn't being fooled just make you ill?)

ALOT/A LOT

Perhaps this common spelling error began because there does exist in English a word spelled "allot" which is a verb meaning to apportion or grant. The correct form, with "a" and "lot" separated by a space is perhaps not often encountered in print because formal writers usually use other expressions such as "a great deal," "often," etc. If you can't remember the rule, just remind yourself that just as you wouldn't write "alittle" you shouldn't write "alot."

ALRIGHT/ALL RIGHT

The correct form of this phrase has become so rare in the popular press that many readers have probably never noticed that it is actually two words. But if you want to avoid irritating traditionalists you'd better tell them that you feel "all right" rather than "alright."

ALTAR/ALTER

An altar is that platform at the front of a church or in a temple; to alter something is to change it.

ALTOGETHER/ALL TOGETHER

"Altogether" is an adverb meaning "completely," "entirely." For example: "When he first saw the examination questions, he was altogether baffled." "All together," in contrast, is an adjective phrase meaning "in a group." For example: "The wedding guests were gathered all together in the garden."

ALUMNUS/ALUMNI

We used to have "alumnus" (male singular), "alumni" (male plural), "alumna" (female singular) and "alumnae" (female plural); but the latter two are now popular only among older female graduates, with the first two terms becoming unisex. However, it is still important to distinguish between one alumnus and a stadium full of alumni. Never say "I am an alumni" if you don't want to cast discredit on your school.

AMATURE/AMATEUR

Most of the words we've borrowed from the French which have retained their "-eur" endings are pretty sophisticated, like "restaurateur" (notice, no "N") and "auteur" (in film criticism), but "amateur" attracts amateurish spelling.

AMBIGUOUS/AMBIVALENT

Even though the prefix "ambi-" means "both," "ambiguous" has come to mean "unclear," "undefined," while "ambivalent" means "torn between two opposing feelings or views." If your attitude cannot be defined into two polarized alternatives, then you're ambiguous, not ambivalent.

AMONG/BETWEEN

The "-tween" in "between" should remind you that it has to do with two-ness. When you have to choose between only two alternatives, you choose between them. When there are more than two, you choose among them.

AMOUNT/NUMBER

This is a vast subject. I will try to limit the number of words I expend on it so as not to use up too great a quantity of space. The confusion between the two categories of words relating to amount and number is so pervasive that those of us who still distinguish between them constitute an endangered species; but if you want to avoid our ire, learn the difference. Amount words relate to quanities of things that are measured in bulk; number to things that can be counted.

In the second sentence above, it would have been improper to write "the amount of words" because words are discreet entities which can be counted, or numbered.

Here is a handy chart to distinguish the two categories of words:

amount vs. number quantity vs. number little vs. few less vs. fewer much vs. many

You can eat fewer cookies, but you drink less milk. If you eat too many cookies, people will probably think you've had too much dessert. If the thing being measured is being considered in countable units, then use number words. Even a substance which is considered in bulk can also be measured by number of units. For instance, you shouldn't drink too much wine, but you should also avoid drinking too many glasses of wine. Note that here you are counting glasses. They can be numbered.

The most common mistake of this kind is to refer to an "amount" of people instead of a "number" of people.

Just to confuse things, "more" can be used either way: you can eat more cookies and drink more milk.

ANGEL/ANGLE

People who want to write about winged beings from Heaven often miscall them "angles." A triangle has three angles. The Heavenly Host is made of angels. Just remember the adjectival form: "angelic." If you pronounce it aloud you'll be reminded that the E comes before the L.

ANXIOUS/EAGER

Most people use "anxious" as a synonym for "eager," but its original meaning had to do with worrying, being full of anxiety. Pefectly correct phrases like "anxious to please" obscure the nervous tension implicit in this word and lead people to say less correct things like "I'm anxious for Christmas morning to come so I can open my presents." Traditionalists frown on anxiety-free anxiousness. Say instead you are eager for or looking forward to a happy event.

ANYMORE/ANY MORE

In the first place, it's two words: "any more"; as in "We do not sell bananas any more." In the second place, it should not be used at the beginning of a sentence as a synonym for "nowadays." In certain dialects of English it is common to utter phrases like "anymore you have to grow your own if you want really ripe tomatoes," but this is guaranteed to jolt listeners who aren't used to it. Even if they can't quite figure out what's wrong, they'll feel that your speech is vaguely clunky and awkward. "Any more" always needs to be used as part of an expression of negation. Now you won't make that mistake any more, will you?

APARTHEID

Now that the era of apartheid (racial segregation) in South Africa is over, we hear this word less often; but American reporters continue to pronounce it as if it were a German word, as "apart-hide." Afrikaans is not pronounced like German, and the correct pronunciation is also a handy mnemonic: "apart-hate."

APPRAISE/APPRISE

When you estimate the value of something, you appraise it. When you inform people of a situation, you apprise them of it.

ARTIC/ARCTIC

Although some brand names have incorporated this popular error, remember that the Arctic Circle is an arc.

AS FAR AS

Originally people used to say things like "As far as music is concerned, I especially love Baroque opera." Recently they have begun to drop the "is concerned" part of the phrase. Perhaps this shift was influenced by confusion with a similar phrase, "as for." "As for money, I don't have any," is fine; "As far as money, I don't have any," is clumsy.

ASSURE/ENSURE/INSURE

To "assure" a person of something is to make him or her confident of it. According to Associated Press style, to "ensure" that something happens is to make certain that it does, and to "insure" is to issue an insurance policy. Other authorities, however, consider "ensure" and "insure" interchangeable. To please conservatives, make the distinction. However, it is worth noting that in older usage these spellings were not clearly distinguished.

European "life assurance" companies take the position that all policy-holders are motal and someone will definitely collect, they assuring heirs of some income. American companies tend to go with "insurance" for coverage of life as well as of fire, theft, etc.

ASTERICK/ASTERISK

Some people not only spell this word without the penultimate S, they say it that way too. It comes from Greek asteriskos: "little star." Tisk, tisk, remember the "-isk"; "asterick" is icky.

ATM machine/ATM

"ATM" means "Automatic Teller Machine," so if you say "ATM machine" you are really saying, "Automatic Teller Machine Machine."

BARE/BEAR

There are actually three words here. The simple one is the big growly creature (unless you prefer the Winnie-the-Pooh type). Hardly anyone past the age of ten gets that one wrong. The problem is the other two. Stevedores bear burdens on their backs and mothers bear children. Both mean "carry" (in the case of mothers, the meaning has been extended from carrying the child during pregnancy to actually giving birth). But strippers bare their bodies–sometimes bare-naked. The confusion between this latter verb and "bear" creates many unintentionally amusing sentences; so if you want to entertain your readers while convincing them that you are a dolt, by all means mix them up. The last of these meanings has an adjectival form: "The pioneers stripped the forest bare."

BASICLY/BASICALLY

There are "-ly" words and "-ally" words, and you basically just have to memorize which is which. But "basically" is very much overused and is often better avoided in favor of such expressions as "essentially," "fundamentally," or "at heart."

BAZAAR/BIZARRE

A "bazaar" is a market where miscellaneous goods are sold. "Bizarre," in contrast, is an adjective meaning "strange," "weird." Let all those As in "bazaar" remind you that this is an Arabic word denoting traditional markets.

BEAUROCRACY/BUREAUCRACY

The French bureaucrats from whom we get this word worked at their bureaus (desks) in what came to be known as bureaucracies.

FROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME

Stephen Hawking writes about the beginning of time, but few other people do. People who write "from the beginning of time" or "since time began" are usually being lazy. Their grasp of history is vague, so they resort to these broad, sweeping phrases. Almost never is this usage literally accurate: people have not fallen in love since time began, for instance, because people arrived relatively late on the scene in the cosmic scheme of things. When I visited Ferrara several years ago I was interested to see that the whole population of the old city seemed to use bicycles for transportation, cars being banned from the central area. I asked how long this had been the custom and was told "We've ridden bicycles for centuries." Since the bicycle was only invented in the 1890s, I strongly doubted this (no, Leonardo da Vinci did not invent the bicycle–he just drew a picture of what one might look like). If you really don't know the appropriate period from which your subject dates, you could substitute a less silly but still vague phrase such as "for many years," or "for centuries"; but it's better simply to avoid historical statements if you don't know your history. See "today's modern society."

BOUYANT/BUOYANT

Buoys are buoyant. In the older pronunciation of "buoy" as "bwoy" this unusual spelling made more sense. Now that the pronunciation has shifted to "boy" we have to keep reminding ourselves that the U comes before the O.

BRAND NAMES

Popular usage frequently converts brand names into generic ones, with the generic name falling into disuse. Few people call gelatin dessert mix anything other than "Jello," which helps to explain why it's hard to find Nabisco's Royal Gelatin on the grocery shelves. All facial tissues are "Kleenex" to the masses, all photocopies "Xeroxes." Such commercial fame is, however, a two-edged sword: sales may be lost as well as gained from such over-familiarity. Few people care whether their "Frisbee" is the genuine Wham-O brand original or an imitation. Some of these terms lack staying power: "Hoover" used to be synonymous with "vacuum cleaner," and the brand name was even transmuted into a verb: "to hoover." Most of the time this sort of thing is fairly harmless, but if you are a motel operator offering a different brand of whirlpool bath in your rooms, better not call it a "Jacuzzi."

BRING/TAKE

When you are viewing the movement of something from the point of arrival, use "bring": "When you come to the potluck, please bring a green salad." Viewing things from the point of departure, you should use "take": "When you go to the potluck, take a bottle of wine."

CALLS FOR/PREDICTS

Glendower: I can call spirits from the vasty deep. Hotspur: Why, so can I, or so can any man; But will they come when you do call for them? Shakespeare: Henry IV, Part 1

Newspeople constantly joke that the weather service is to blame for the weather, so we shouldn't be surprised when they tell us that the forecast "calls for rain" when what they mean is that it "predicts" rain. Remember, wherever you live, the weather is uncalled for.

CALVARY/CAVALRY

"Calvary," always capitalized, is the hill on which Jesus was crucified. It means "hill of skulls." Soldiers mounted on horseback are cavalry.

CANON/CANNON

"Canon" used to be such a rare word that there was no temptation to confuse it with "cannon": a large piece of artillery. The debate over the literary canon (a list of officially-approved works) and the popularity of Pachelbel's Canon (an imitative musical form like a round) have changed all that–confusion is rampant. Just remember that the big gun is a "cannon." All the rest are "canons."

CAPITAL/CAPITOL

A "capitol" is always a building. Cities and all other uses are spelled with an A in the last syllable. Would it help to remember that Congress with an O meets in the Capitol Building with another O?

CARAT/CARET/CARROT/KARAT

"Carrots" are those crunchy orange vegetables Bugs Bunny is so fond of, but this spelling gets misused for the less familiar words which are pronounced the same but have very different meanings. Precious stones like diamonds are weighed in carats. The same word is used to express the proportion of pure gold in an alloy, though in this usage it is sometimes spelled "karat" (hence the abbreviation "20K gold"). A caret is a proofreader's mark showing where something needs to be inserted, shaped like a tiny pitched roof. It looks rather like a French circumflex, but is usually distinct from it on modern computer keyboards. Carets are extensively used in computer programming. Just remember, if you can't eat it, it's not a carrot.

CEASAR/CAESAR

Did you know that German "Kaiser" is derived from the Latin "Caesar" and is pronounced a lot more like it than the English version? We're stuck with our illogical pronunciation, so we have to memorize the correct spelling. (The Russians messed up the pronunciation as thoroughly as the English, with their "Czar.") Thousands of menus are littered with "Ceasar salads" throughout America–named after a Los Angeles restaurateur, not the emperor (but they both spelled their names the same way). Julius Caesar's family name was "Julius"; he made the name "Caesar" famous all by himself.

COULD CARE LESS/COULDN'T CARE LESS

Cliches are especially prone to scrambling because they become meaningless through overuse. In this case an expression which originally meant "it would be impossible for me to care less than I do because I do not care at all" is rendered senseless by being transformed into the now-common "I could care less." Think about it: if you could care less, that means you care some. People who misuse this phrase are being careless.

CEASAR/CAESAR

CENTER AROUND/CENTER ON, REVOLVE AROUND

Two perfectly good expressions–"center on" and "revolve around"–get conflated in this nonsensical neologism. When a speaker says his address will "center around the topic of" whatever, my interest level plummets.

CHAISE LONGUE

When English speakers want to be elegant they commonly resort to French, often mangling it in the process. The "entree" (with an acute accent over the second E), the dish served before the "plat," ursurped the latter's position as main dish. And how in the world did French lingerie (meaning linen goods of all sorts, including underwear) pronounced–roughly–"lanzheree" come to be English "lawnzheray," meaning women's slinky underthings only? Quelle horreur! "Chaise longue" (literally "long chair"), pronounced–roughly–"shezz lohng" with a hard G on the end became in English "shayz long." Many speakers, however, confuse French chaise with English "chase" and French longue with English "lounge" (understandable since the article in question is a sort of couch or lounge), resulting in the mispronunciation "chase lounge." We may imagine the French as chasing each other around their lounges, but a chaise is just a chair.

CHEMICALS

Markets offering "organic" produce claim it has been raised "without chemicals." News stories fret about "chemicals in our water supply." This common error in usage indicates quite clearly the lamentable level of scientific literacy in our population. Everything on earth save a few stray subatomic particles and various kinds of energy (and–if you believe in it–pure spirit) is composed of chemicals. Pure water consists of the chemical hydrodgen oxide. Vitamins and minerals are chemicals. In the broadest sense, even simple elements like nitrogen can be called chemicals. Writers who use this term sloppily contribute to the obfuscation of public debate over such serious issues as pollution and malnutrition.

CITE/SITE/SIGHT

You cite the author in an endnote; you visit a Web site or the site of the crime, and you sight your beloved running toward you in slow motion on the beach (a sight for sore eyes!).

CLICHE/CLICHED

One often hears young people say "That movie was so cliche!" "Cliche" is a noun, meaning an overfamiliar phrase or image. A work containing cliches is cliched.

CLOSE/CLOTHES

Because the TH in "clothes" is seldom pronounced distinctly, it is often misspelled "close." Just remember the TH in "clothing," where it is obvious. Clothes are made of cloth. Rags can also be cloths (without an E).

COMPARE AND CONTRAST

Hey kids, here's a chance to catch your English teacher in a redundancy! To compare two things is to note their similarities and their differences. There's no need to add "and contrast."

COMPRISED OF/COMPOSED OF

Many people mistakenly suppose that "comprises" is synonymous with "constitutes"–hence their confusion. "The business comprises five branches" is correct, but uncommon. Never use "of" after any form of "comprise." If you are uncomfortable with the word, substitute "is composed of" or "is made up of."

CONCENSUS/CONSENSUS

You might suppose that this word had to do with taking a census of the participants in a discussion, but it doesn't. It is a good old Latin word that has to do with arriving at a common sense of the meeting, and the fourth letter is an "S."

CONCERTED EFFORT

One cannot make a "concerted effort" all by one's self. To work "in concert" is to work together with others. The prefix "con-" means "with."

CONFUSIONISM/CONFUCIANISM

This spelling error isn't exactly an English error, but it's very common among my students. Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. His name is not spelled "Confucious," and his philosophy is not called "Confusionism." When you spot the confusion in the latter term, change it quickly to "Confucianism."

CONGRADULATIONS/CONGRATULATIONS

I fear that all too many people are being "congradulated" for graduating from high school who don't know that this word should be spelled "congratulations." Try a search for this misspelling on your favorite Web search engine and be prepared to be astonished.

CONTINUAL/CONTINUOUS

"Continuous" refers to actions which are uninterrupted: "My upstairs neighbor played his stereo continously from 6:00 PM to 3:30 AM." Continual actions, however, need not be uninterrupted, only repeated: "My father continually urges me to get a job."

CORE/CORPS/CORPSE

Apples have cores. A corps is an organization, like the Peace Corps. A corpse is a dead body, a carcass.

COULD OF, SHOULD OF, WOULD OF/COULD HAVE, SHOULD HAVE, WOULD HAVE

This is one of those errors typically made by a person more familiar with the spoken than the written form of English. A sentence like "I would have gone if anyone had given me free tickets" is normally spoken in a slurred way so that the two words "would have" are not distinctly separated, but blended together into what is properly rendered "would've." Seeing that V tips you off right away that "would've" is a contraction of "would have." But many people hear "would of" and that's how they write it. Wrong.

COUNCIL/COUNSEL

An official group which deliberates, like the Council on Foreign Relations, is a "council"; all the rest are "counsels": your lawyer, advice, etc.

CONVINCE/PERSUADE

When you manage to get people to agree with you, you have convinced them. When you motivate people to do something, you have persuaded them to do so. Instead of saying "She convinced me to pick up my clothes," say "She persuaded me to pick up my clothes."

CRITERIA/CRITERION

There are several words with Latin roots whose plural forms ending in A are constantly mistaken for singular ones. See, for instance, data and media. You can have one criterion or many criteria. Don't confuse them.

CRUCIFICTION/CRUCIFIXION

One might suppose that this common misspelling was a product of skepticism were it not for the fact that it most often occurs in the writings of believers. The word should make clear that Jesus was affixed to the cross, not imply that his killing is regarded as a fiction.

DATA/DATUM

There are several words with Latin roots whose plural forms ending in A are constantly mistaken for singular ones. See, for instance, "criteria" and "media." "Datum" is so rare now in English that people may assume "data" has no singular form. Fortunately, you seldom need to use the word in the singular. Just remember to say, "the data are printed on page 27 of the report," and you'll be all right. "Data" is singular only when it's a character from "Star Trek: The Next Generation."

DECIMATE/ANNIHILATE, SLAUGHTER, ETC.

This comes under the heading of the truly picky. Despite the fact that most dictionaries have caved in, some of us still remember that when the Romans killed one out of every ten (decem) soldiers in a rebellious group as an example to the others, they decimated them. People sensitive to the roots of words are uncomfortably reminded of that ten percent figure when they see the word used instead to mean "annihilate," "obliterate," etc. You can usually get away with using "decimate" to mean "drastically reduce in numbers," but you're taking a bigger risk when you use it to mean "utterly wipe out."

DEEP-SEEDED/DEEP-SEATED

Those who pine for the oral cultures of Ye Olden Dayes can rejoice as we enter an era where many people are unfamiliar with common expressions in print and know them only by hearsay. The result is mistakes like "deep seeded." The expression has nothing to do with a feeling being planted deep within one, but instead refers to its being seated firmly within one's breast: "My aversion to anchovies is deep-seated." Compounding their error, most people who misuse this phrase leave the hyphen out. Tennis players may be seeded, but not feelings.

DEFINATE/DEFINITE

Any vowel in an unstressed position can sometimes have the sound linguists call a "schwa": "uh." The result is that many people tend to guess when they hear this sound. At the core of "definite" is the word "define" where the I sounds out clearly and unambiguously. "Definite" is definitely the right spelling.

DEGRADE/DENIGRATE/DOWNGRADE

Many people use "downgrade" instead of "denigrate" to mean "defame, slander." "Downgrade" is entirely different in meaning. When something is downgraded, it is lowered in grade (usually made worse), not just considered worse. "When the President of the company fled to Rio with fifteen million dollars, its bonds were downgraded to junk bond status." "Degrade" is much more flexible in meaning. It can mean to lower in status or rank (like "downgrade") or to corrupt or make contemptible; but it always has to do with actual reduction in value rather than mere insult, like "denigrate." Most of the time when people use "downgrade" they would be better off instead using "insult," "belittle" or "sneer at."

DESERT/DESSERT

Perhaps these two words are confused partly because it is one of the few words in English with a double S pronounced like Z ("brassiere" is another). That impoverished stretch of sand called a desert can only afford one S. In contrast, that rich gooey extra thing at the end of the meal called a dessert indulges in two of them.

DIETIES/DEITIES

This one is always good for a laugh. The gods are deities, after the Latin deus, meaning "god."

DIFFER/VARY

People often say "our opinions vary" when what they mean is "our opinions differ." If something is undergoing change, then it varies. If some items or ideas are different from others, without in themselves undergoing change, they differ. The confusion probably arises because we can say that people have a wide variety of ideas, or various interpretations. But "opinions vary" means "opinions change," not "we disagree among ourselves."

DISCREET/DISCRETE

The more common word is "discreet," meaning "prudent, circumspect": "When arranging the party for Agnes, be sure to be discreet; we want her to be surprised." "Discrete" means "separate, distinct": "He arranged the guest list into two discrete groups: meat-eaters and vegetarians." Note how the T separates the two Es in "discrete."

DISINTERESTED/UNINTERESTED

A bored person is uninterested. Do not confuse this word with the much rarer "disinterested," which means "objective, neutral."

DOLLY/HANDCART

A dolly is a flat platform with wheels on it, often used to make heavy objects mobile, or by an auto mechanic lying on one under a car body. Many people mistakenly use this word to designate the vertically-oriented two-wheeled device with upright handles and horizontal lip which is more properly called a "handcart" or "handtruck."

DOMINATE/DOMINANT

The verb is "dominate"; the adjective is "dominant." The dominant chimpanzee tends to dominate the others.

DUAL/DUEL

"Dual" is an adjective describing the two-ness of something–dual carburetors, for instance. A "duel" is a formal battle intended to settle a dispute.

E.G./I.E.

When you mean "for example," use e.g. It is an abbreviation for the Latin phrase "exempli gratia." When you mean "that is," use "i.e." It is an abbreviation for the Latin phrase "id est." Either can be used to clarify a preceding statement, the first by example, the second by restating the idea more clearly or expanding upon it. Because these uses are so similar, the two abbreviations are easily confused. If you just stick with good old English "for example" and "that is" you won't give anyone a chance to sneer at you.

ECT./ETC.

"Etc." is an abbreviation for the Latin phrase "et cetera," meaning "and others." ("Et" means "and" in French too.) Just say "et cetera" out loud to yourself to remind yourself of the correct order of the "t" and "c."

ELICIT/ILLICIT

The lawyer tries to elicit a description of the attacker from the witness. "Elicit" is always a verb. "Illicit," in contrast, is always an adjective describing something illegal or naughty.

EMBARESS/EMBARRASS

You can pronounce the last two syllables as two distinct words as a jog to memory, except that then the word may be misspelled "embareass," which isn't right either. You also you have to remember the double R: "embarrass."

EMIGRATE/IMMIGRATE

To "emigrate" is to leave a country. The E at the beginning of the word is related to the E in other words having to do with going out, such as "exit." "Immigrate," in contrast, looks as if it might have something to do with going in, and indeed it does: it means to move into a new country. The same distinction applies to "emigration" and "immigration." Note the double M in the second form.

ENVIROMENT/ENVIRONMENT

The second N in "environment" is seldom pronounced distinctly, so it's not surprising that is often omitted in writing. If you know the related word "environs" it may help remind you.

EPIGRAM/EPIGRAPH/EPITAPH/EPITHET

An epigram is a pithy saying, usually humorous. Mark Twain was responsible for many striking, mostly cynical epigrams, such as "Always do right. That will gratify some of the people, and astonish the rest." Unfortunately, he was also responsible for an even more famous one that has been confusing people ever since: "Everyone is a moon, and has a dark side which he never shows to anybody." It's true that the Moon keeps one side away from the earth, but–if you don't count the faint glow reflected from the earth–it is not any darker than the side that faces us. In fact, over time, the side facing us is darkened slightly more often because it is occasionally eclipsed by the shadow of the earth.

An epigraph is a brief quotation used to introduce a piece of writing or the inscription on a statue or building.

An epitaph is the inscription on a tombstone or some other tribute to a dead person.

In literature, an epithet is a term which replaces or is added to the name of a person, like "clear-eyed Athena," in which "clear-eyed" is the epithet. You are more likely to encounter the term in its negative sense, as a term of insult or abuse: "the shoplifter hurled epithets at the guard who had arrested her."

EVERYDAY

"Everyday" is a perfectly good adjective, as in "I'm most comfortable in my everyday clothes." The problem comes when people turn the phrase "every day" into a single word. It is incorrect to say "I take a shower everyday." It should be "I take a shower every day."

EXHILERATION/EXHILARATION

"Exhilaration" is closely related to "hilarious," whose strongly accented A should help remind you of the correct spelling.

EXPRESSO/ESPRESSO

I've read several explanations of the origin of this word: the coffee is made expressly for you upon your order, or the steam is expressed through the grounds, or (as most people suppose–and certainly wrong) the coffee is made at express speed). One thing is certain: the word is "espresso," not "expresso."

IN THE FACT THAT/BY THE FACT THAT

The correct phrase is "by the fact that," not "in the fact that." While we're at it, "infact" is not a word; "in fact" is always a two-word phrase.

FARTHER/FURTHER

Some authorities (like the Associated Press) insist on "farther" to refer to physical distance and on "further" to refer to an extent of time or degree, but others treat the two words as interchangeable except for insisting on "further" for "in addition," "moreover." You'll always be safe in making the distinction; some people get really testy about this.

FAZE/PHASE

"Faze" means to embarrass or disturb, but is almost always used in the negative sense, as in "the fact that the overhead projector bulb was burned out didn't faze her." "Phase" is a noun or verb having to do with an aspect of something. "He's just going through a temperamental phase." "They're going to phase in the new accounting procedures gradually." Unfortunately, Star Trek has confused matters by calling its ray pistols phasers. Too bad they aren't fazers instead.

FEARFUL/FEARSOME

To be "fearful" is to be afraid. To be "fearsome" is to cause fear in others. Remember that someone who is fierce is fearsome rather than fearful.

FIERY

It's "fire," so why isn't it "firey?" It just isn't. It's "fiery."

50s

There's no need for the apostrophe before the S in decade names like 50s and 60s, since there are no omitted letters. The term may be written '50s since "19" is being omitted, but "50s" is fine too. Writers who wish to have their references to decades clearly understood in the 21st Century would be well advised not to omit the first two digits.

FLAIR/FLARE

"Flair" is conspicuous talent: "She has a flair for organization." "Flare" is either a noun meaning "flame" or a verb "meaning to blaze with light or to burst into anger.

FLAUNT/FLOUT

To flaunt is to show off: you flaunt your new necklace by wearing it to work. "Flout" has a more negative connotation; it means to treat with contempt some rule or standard. The cliche is "to flout convention." Flaunting may be in bad taste because it's ostentatious, but it is not a violation of standards.

FLOUNDER/FOUNDER

As a verb, "founder" means "to fill with water and sink." It is also used metaphorically of various kinds of equally catastrophic failures. In contrast, to flounder is to thrash about in the water (like a flounder), struggling to stay alive. "Flounder" is also often used metaphorically to indicate various sorts of desperate struggle. If you're sunk, you've foundered. If you're still struggling, you're floundering.

FORBIDDING/FOREBODING/FORMIDABLE